Numbers 5:11–31 as the Old Testament Background for Revelation 8:11

: The article examines possible links between the ritual of bitter water, described in Numbers 5:11–31, and one of the aspects of the plague, described as the event following the third trumpet in the Book of Revelation (Rev 8:11). Such a connection has not been analysed by scholars so far. The ritual described in Numbers 5 not only has a legal meaning but it is also the starting point for a theological tradition of understanding adultery as a metaphor for Israel’s unfaithfulness to YHWH. The prophetic texts of the OT use motifs taken from Num 5 to depict the lawsuit that YHWH brings against the unfaithful people. According to the author of this article, the use of the motif of drinking bitter water in Rev 8:11 falls into a similar pattern. This is a ritual performed to reveal the guilt of the sinners described in Rev as hoi anthrōpoi .

In contemporary research on the Revelation of John, an important trend is the exploration of possible links between that book and the Old Testament.Indeed, there is no doubt that such connections exist.However, since John does not quote the Old Testament anywhere in his book in an explicit way, there remains a large space for exegetes to work.The purpose of the study is not only to demonstrate such connections but also to show what impact such links have on the message of Revelation.The present study follows the trend and is an attempt to demonstrate the connection between the ritual described in Num 5:11-31 and the motif of drinking bitter water in Rev 8:11.The objective is accomplished in several steps.First, the state of research on the topic in question is presented.This is necessary in order to demonstrate the legitimacy of our study.Next, the motif of bitter water in Num 5:11-31 is analysed and the elements that would justify the link between Num 5 and Rev 8:11 are emphasised.Finally, theological implications related to the interpretation of Rev 8:11 that result from considering Num 5:12-31 as a background for John's text are pointed out.

Status quaestionis
The starting point for presenting the state of research on the allusions in the Old Testament to the motif of drinking bitter water in Rev 8:11 is the reference to the monograph by Jon Paulien Decoding Revelation 's Trumpets.Literary Allusions and Interpretation of  Revelation 8:7-12 (1987).While examining the OT references to the text of Rev 8:11, Paulien distinguishes twenty-four possible links 1 and divides these links into several categories: "probable allusion, " "possible allusion, " "uncertain allusion, " "non-allusion."In addition, he introduces the category of "echo."The author also recognises a certain difficulty in his research, which consists in the fact that the Apocalypse does not quote the OT at any place explicitly but uses paraphrases and allusions instead, so that searching for links to specific texts in the OT alone carries a considerable risk of error.This difficulty is also related to the search for a precise source for the OT references.Did John use the Hebrew text or the Greek version of the OT (LXX or another translation)?Did he have access to textual traditions that are presently unknown or did he simply recall certain texts from his own memory, often paraphrasing them?Furthermore, many allusions may simply be involuntary.In his study, Paulien refers to several selected commentators and editors of the Bible. 2 The following presentation of the state of the research will take into account some of the above-mentioned twenty-four proposals of connections between Rev 8:10-11 and the OT, specifically those relating to the motif of bitter water.In the study, the most important, in our opinion, commentators of Revelation from the twentieth and twentyfirst centuries will be referred to.Already at the beginning, it is interesting to note that after 1987 scholars did not introduce (with the exception of one case, however poorly documented) new possible connections between the OT and Rev 8:10-11.Moreover, some of these connections did not appear again in the exegetical literature after the publication of Paulien's monograph. 3n connection with the motif of bitter water, scholars distinguish the following possible allusions to the OT: 1) Exod 15:22-25.This connection is noted by many scholars. 4In Exod 15:22-25 there is a description of an event that took place immediately after the exodus from Egypt, at a place called Mara.The bitter waters that were a threat to the people are "healed."Therefore the situation is opposite to the one described in Rev 8:11. 52) Many commentators 6 point out that the third trumpet is an allusion to Deut 29:17, 18.
Though no verbal parallels are apparent when a comparison between the Greek texts of Deut and Rev is made; it should be noted that the Masoretic text links the word The Biblical Annals 14/1 (2024) 96 used for "bitter herbs" or "poisonous fruit" ‫ֹאׁש(‬ ‫)ֹר‬ with another Hebrew word meaning "wormwood" ‫ָה(‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫.)ַל‬ Wormwood in Deut 29 is associated with idolatry, a theme raised in Rev 9:20, 21 in relation to those who are afflicted by the plagues of the trumpets.Although the events described in Deuteronomy are removed in time and space from the Egyptian plagues, the events of the Exodus still remain in the memory of the people, which provides some structural context for seeing Rev 8:10-11 as a reference to Deuteronomy. 73) Prov 5:3-4.The link between Rev 8:10-11 and Prov 5:3-4 has been noticed by many scholars. 8There are no verbal parallels with the LXX but they are evident in the translation of the Proverbs according to Aquila, where terms such as ἀψίνθιον and πικρότερον appear.It can be juxtaposed with the noun ἀψινθος and the verb ἐπικράνθησαν in Revelation.Evaluating this view, Paulien describes it as an uncertain allusion, while Simon J. Kistemaker notes that in the OT the bitterness "points to illicit sexual acts." 9 4) Several scholars suggest the reference of Rev 8:10-11 to Jer 8:14, where it reads that God uses poisoned water as an instrument of punishment for sins. 105) Numerous commentators propose to link Rev 8:10-11 with Jer 9:14-15 (according to the MT and the LXX, these are verses 13 and 14).Verbal parallels are perceptible in Aqu ila's translation, which follows the Hebrew text more closely than the Septuagint does.Here, wormwood is seen as an instrument of punishment for idolatry.This punishment causes suffering.6) Also, many exegetes recognise a connection between Rev 8:10-11 and Jer 23:15. 12cholars agree that John referred to Jer 23:15 when he wrote Rev 8:11.In Aquila's translation, one can find ἀψίνθιον (in the LXX it is ὑδωρ πικρόν).Wormwood poisons the waters because the people committed idolatry, adultery and because they listened to false prophets.There is no doubt that wormwood was a symbol of the Babylonian invasion that was to bring bitterness to Judah.Here, Paulien speaks of a possible allusion.This is confirmed by Tremper Longman, pointing to a similar context -the context of judgment -of these two texts. 137) An allusion to Lam 3:15 is also seen by a large group of scholars.However, according to Paulien, no significant parallels are evident between the texts of Lam and Rev.It is only evident between the Hebrew terms "bitterness" ‫ים(‬ ִ ‫ֹרֹוֹר‬ ‫)ְמְ‬ and "wormwood" ‫ָה(‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫)ַל‬ in relation to the Babylonian exile treated as a punishment.Hence, as Paulien concludes, the allusion is uncertain. 14) The situation is similar with Lam 3:19, which is seen by a number of scholars (often the same ones who see a link with Lam 3:15). 159) The allusion to Amos 5:6-7 is recognised by many scholars.Here, wormwood is contrasted with righteousness.However, there are no parallels as far as the Greek text of Amos is concerned (the LXX does not mention wormwood at all). 1610) Amos 6:12.This allusion is also noticed by a considerable number of commentators.
Most of them are the ones who see the connections with Amos 5:6-7. 17 At this point, it should be noted that scholars, in addition to the allusions in the OT, find links to extra-biblical texts in Rev 8:11.First of all, it is necessary to mention those which we classify as the so-called intertestamental literature.In particular, we can mention 4 Ezra 5:9 (motif of the transformation of fresh water into salty water in the time of the end); 6:24 (motif of springs of water); 4 Bar.(Paraleipomena Jeremiou) 9:18 (the transformation of fresh water into salty water). 18In addition, references to other Hellenistic literature are indicated: to Pliny (Naturalis Historia 2,22,90; 2,25,96), Artemidorus  Here it should be noted that the most important problem while trying to find links between Revelation and intertestamental literature is that we do not always know even the approximate dates of the sources.Consequently, it is difficult to know whether John actually used them or whether he used motifs that were simply functioning in the circles when he wrote his text.(Oneirocritica 2,36; 5,23), Theophrastus (Historia plantarum 1,12,1), 19 Lucan (Pharsalia 1,526) and also to literature from other cultural circles, e.g.Persian. 20n this background, a new insight related to the search for the allusions in the Old Testament to the text of Rev 8:10-11 appears in Buist M. Fanning, however, it is only a slight hint, without any deeper elaboration.He notes that in the OT, there is a relationship between the punishment for sins and drinking a bitter drink, or the bitterness that leads to death.Fanning gives several examples of reference to the Old Testament here: in addition to the previously mentioned texts as Deut 29:18; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:19, a new reference also appears, namely Num 5:24, 27.Because this issue has not been developed, it is difficult to say whether Fanning believes that a direct connection between Num 5:24-27 and Rev 8:11c exists. 21he above analysis of the status quaestionis shows that it has yet been overlooked to treat the text of Num 5:11-31 as the Old Testament background for Rev 8:10-11.The proposal discussed below has already been mentioned in my book Teologiczna rola "ludzi" (οἱ ἀνθρωποι) w Apokalipsie Janowej (The Theological Role of the "People" [οἱ ἀνθρωποι ] in the Apocalypse of John ) as one of the possibilities; however it has not been further argued there. 22In particular, the text of Num 5:11-31 and its relevance when it comes to understanding Rev 8:11 was not examined in detail there.For this reason, it seems reasonable to elaborate on this issue.

"Water of bitterness" in Num 5:11-31
When proceeding to justify our proposal regarding the connections between Num 5:11-31 23 and Rev 8:10-11, the question of whether the aforementioned text really refers to "bitter water"/"water of bitterness" needs to be answered first.This question arises  The identification of the ritual described in Num 5:11-31 as an ordeal is a matter of debate.Since it is not directly relevant to our research problem, we refer to other studies on this subject here: R. Preß, "Das Ordal im alten Israel, " ZAW 51 (1933)  The Biblical Annals 14/1 (2024) 100 because in the Septuagint, the equivalent of the Hebrew expression ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ָּמָ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫י‬ ‫ְמֵ‬ is the phrase τὸ ὑδωρ τοῦ ἐλεγμοῦ ("water of proof or trial").In contrast, there are no terms associated with the idea of bitterness in the immediate context (e.g. the noun πικριά, the adjective πικρός, or the verb πικραίνω). 24n the traditional exegesis, the aforementioned term ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ָּמָ‬ ‫ה‬ was derived from the root ‫ְמֹרֹר‬ ("to be bitter").However, from the beginning, there were other proposals for its translation.This was the case for two reasons.Firstly, because of the aforementioned Septuagint translation.Secondly, because of the difficulty in associating the bitterness with the dust from the floor of the sanctuary (or, alternatively, with the ink with which the scripture mentioned in 5:23 was written). 25hus, G.R. Driver suggests referring to the stem ‫ְמֹרה‬ ‫,)ְמֹרי(‬ ‫ֹר‬w hich expresses the idea of rebellion, questioning something or doubt.He notes that, although from a grammatical point of view it seems justified to use the translation "the water of bitterness"/"bitter water, " such a meaning is not satisfactory since the addition of dust to water does not make it bitter.Driver recognises the Vulgate translation aquae amarissimae but contrasts it with the Septuagint version τὸ ὑδωρ τοῦ ἐλεγμοῦ (or in other variants: τὸ ὑδωρ τοῦ ἐμφανισμοῦ).The Samaritan version also mentiones the water of trial suggesting a different meaning, which seems to suit the whole context. 26In support of his proposal, Driver refers to the parallels in Syriac and Arabic and states that the Hebrew ‫ה‬ ‫ֹרֶ‬ ‫ְמָ‬ means "a matter under discussion" and the plurale abstractum -‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ְמָ‬ denotes "trial, examination, doubt."For these reasons, he proposes that ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ָּמָ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫י‬ ‫ְמֵ‬ should mean the water of trial. 27Norman H. Snaith, on the other hand, refers to the Arabic terms mārar ("to pass by") and marmara ("to cause to flow"), suggesting that in Num 5:11-31, the waters in question were the ones leading to the removal of a sinfully conceived foetus. 28There is no evidence , however, that this ritual was used for pregnant women exclusively.Herbert C. Brichto derives ‫ה‬ ‫ֹרֶ‬ ‫ְמָ‬ from the root ‫יֹרה‬ ("to throw") and proposes the translation "waters of the oracle." 29This proposal is also supported by Tikva Frymer Kensky.This interpretation , however, raises grammatical difficulties. 30

24
Here, it could be proposed that the absence of such terminological links rules out a priori the possibility of examining the influence of Num 5:11-31 on Rev 8:10-11.Such a claim does not seem valid, for the reason that it is not certain that the only text used by John was the Septuagint.The term ὁ ἀψινθος itself has no parallel in the LXX either, and it appears only in the translation of Aquila.The author of Revelation uses the OT in a manner different from that of other authors of the NT.He does not quote any text directly.Instead, he uses many allusions to motifs found in the texts of the OT, and he also refers to the symbolism in the OT.This has already been noted by J. Paulien when he introduces various terms for the links that he has found (see footnote 1).Brichto ("The Case of the śōṭā, " 59) believes that the phrase "bitter waters" should be "majim marim" in Hebrew, Also Philip J. Budd goes in a similar direction as he believes that the expression ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ָּמָ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫י‬ ‫ְמֵ‬ means the water of testing, although the reference to the stem ‫ְמֹרֹר‬ in the sense of "to be bitter" may still remain in its background.Budd believes that bitter water could have been often used in rituals of this kind but it is not the mere fact of the appearance of a bitter taste that is most relevant here. 31George B. Gray thinks that the expression ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ָּמָ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫י‬ ‫ְמֵ‬ should refer to the noxious character of this concoction, while the effect of the bitter taste itself, although not the most relevant here, was obtained by adding some ingredients (such as the ‫ֹאׁש‬ ‫ֹר‬ mentioned in Jer 8:14 and 23:15). 32In a similar way, William McKane argues by drawing attention to the expression ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ְמָ‬ ‫ַלְ‬ ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ֹרֲ‬ ‫אָ‬ ‫ְמְ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫ם‬ ‫יִ‬ ‫ָּמ‬ ‫ה‬ occurring in verses 24 and 27.He notes that ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫,ְמָ‬ in this context, must mean something more than "bitterness, " that is, it must have the meaning of "poisonous."The whole phrase should therefore be translated as follows: "water that carries a curse as poison."This water contains a curse and if the woman is guilty of adultery it will manifest its poisonous effects and cause a miscarriage.The water, as McKane notes, is inherently harmless and only becomes harmful if the woman is guilty, and this is due to the curse contained in it.McKane also notes that, theoretically, a different point of view could be taken: the drink is poisonous from the very outset but the woman is protected from the effects of the poison if she is innocent. 33Jack M. Sasson, on the other hand, has found the Ugaritic root mrr ("to bless"), so he proposes the translation: "waters that bless and bring a curse."The expression would then be a merism meaning "waters of judgment."The problem with this interpretation is that this Ugaritic stem leaves no trace of a parallel in Hebrew, hence the solution must remain conjectural. 34n spite of the multiplicity of proposals that have been given, in recent years, the traditional interpretation of the expression ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ָּמָ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫י‬ ‫ְמֵ‬ is being revived.The starting point for this interpretation is to note that an important characteristic of bitter water is that it is not only bitter in taste but, above all, bitter in terms of the effect caused by drinking it (vv.24 and 27).As Eve L. Feinstein notes, in Num 5:11-31, in the case of the term ‫ֹר‬ ‫ְמָ‬ we encoun-, ter a shift from a literal to a metaphorical meaning.Thus, the adjective in question would indicate something negative, unpleasant and painful. 35uch a metaphorical meaning is also discernible in the prophetic literature.E.g.Jer 2:19 and 4:18 speak of Israel's "bitter apostasy" ‫ָה(‬ ‫הָו‬ ‫ת-יְ‬ ‫אֶ‬ ‫ְך‬ ‫ְֵבֵ‬ ‫ְז‬ ָ ‫ֲע‬ ‫ֹר‬ ‫.)ְמָ‬In contrast, Amos 8:10 while the use of the form ‫י‬ ‫ְמֵ‬ (status constructus) would indicate that "marim" is a noun and not an adjective here.Eve L.  51), when he speaks of the "bitterness of death, " although in Numbers 5, there is no explicit reference to the lethal effect of drinking.
The Biblical Annals 14/1 (2024) 102 and Zeph 1:14 speak of "the bitter day of the Lord" ‫ֹר(‬ ‫ְמ‬ ‫ָה‬ ‫הָו‬ ‫יְ‬ ‫יֹום‬ ).Thus, the translation "the water of bitterness"/ "bitter water" is as legitimate as possible, especially given the immediate context.This can be seen, above all, where it has been highlighted that the water has a bitter effect only in the case of an adulterous woman, while an innocent woman does not feel it.If it were a question of the bitter taste of water in the physical sense, it would be difficult to explain why the innocent woman does not react to this taste.Thus, it is not so much a matter of describing the water as bitter but it seems that the text emphasises the punitive nature of the whole ritual in the case of a guilty person.
This emphasis is also highlighted in Num 5 by the description of the waters as ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ֹרֲ‬ ‫אָ‬ ‫ְמְ‬ ‫ה‬ -"carrying a curse" -and by the description of the sacrifice being offered (v. 15).The effect of bitterness is only manifested in the case of the woman's guilt and the existence of this guilt is somehow assumed throughout the rite.At the beginning of the chapter, the description of a potential act of adultery spans over three and a half verses (vv.12-14a), while the possibility of innocence is only mentioned in the middle of verse 14(14b).The ritual itself seems to suggest the commitment of adultery (loose hair and humiliating appearance).The negative symptoms are described several times (v.21, 22, 27), while the positive effect only once (v.28).Also verse 31 assumes the woman's guilt.For this reason, the water that the woman drinks is referred to ‫ים‬ ִ ‫ֹר‬ ‫ֹרֲ‬ ‫אָ‬ ‫ְמְ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫ים‬ ִ ‫ֹר‬ ‫ָּמָ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫י‬ ‫,ְמֵ‬ since the primary function of the rite is to produce a curse effect. 36This effect is a selective one -the cursed woman is guilty and will therefore be filled with bitterness. 37n view of the analysis above, we therefore conclude that there are no grounds for questioning the translation of the expression ‫ים‬ ‫ֹרִ‬ ‫ָּמָ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫י‬ ‫ְמֵ‬ as "water of bitterness"/"bitter water, " with the restriction; however, that what is at issue here is not the bitter taste of the water but its effect of filling the guilty person with bitterness.
The next stage of our analysis is to find an answer to the question of the meaning of the ritual described in Num 5:11-31.This question is justified because if this text were merely a legal regulation, it would be difficult to find links between a statement of a legal nature (which, by its nature, must be applied to a literal interpretation) and the text of Revelation, which is based primarily on the symbolism of certain terms.
In proceeding to this stage, it is necessary to emphasise what Michael Fishbane has already pointed out when he says that the Bible, in giving various kinds of legal provisions, subordinates them to theology.In other words, the law is always the starting point for the presentation of theological thought. 38The fact that the regulation described in Num 5:11-31 is 36 Cf.Feinstein, "The 'Bitter Waters' of Numbers 5:11-31, " 303.Feinstein notes that the Hebrew Bible has only two adjectives to describe taste: ‫ְמֹר‬ -"bitter" and ‫ְמתָוק‬ -"sweet." In reality, however, there are two "types" of taste at issue: a pleasant one and an unpleasant one.The unpleasant one is the bitter taste, while the pleasant one is the sweet taste.The traditional translation is also supported by Ashley, The Book of Numbers, 130.   37   For the meaning of the term ‫ְמֹר‬ in relation to emotions see: H.-J. Fabry -H.Ringgren, ‫,ְמֹרֹר"‬ " TDOT IX, 16-18.important from a theological and not just a legal point of view is also evidenced by the fact that it was the subject of reflection by the rabbis, despite the fact that, as the Mishnah notes (Sotah 9:9), its execution in Israel was suspended in practice.We can only speculate when it occurred but the fact that the "dead" rite was left in the collection of laws is significant. 39he first thing to note in this regard is that the description of the ritual contained in Num 5:11-31 appears in a particular place in this book. 40The provision does not appear among the laws relating to marital life, where it would be expected.Instead, it appears in the context of the law relating to impurity and to the cultic area.As Rolf P. Knierim and George W. Coats note, this provision is most likely included in the present context of the Book of Numbers because the authors, coming from a priestly background, considered this type of transgression as something that brought uncleanness to the whole community.This fact was far more important than the issue of the individual relationship between a husband and a wife.Such transgressions were very dangerous to the functioning of the community and needed the involvement of divine authority to be exposed and removed.This was done through a ritual led by a priest.Therefore, the provision referred rather to the issue of chastity or impurity than to the issue of marital fidelity or adultery. 41hoever violated the law in the area of marital life brought uncleanness on the Israelite community and on the land which that community inhabited.This was a very serious situation, even endangering the possession of the promised land.This is confirmed by the statement in Lev 18:24-30, the people of Canaan had previously lost their land to Israel exactly because of the widespread sins of this kind. 42herefore, one may ask what theological idea was contained in the ritual described in Num 5:11-31.This question is all the more justified because, from the very beginning, the aforementioned regulation became the object of many interpretations carried out by the rabbis.The theological significance of this ritual was already pointed out by Jacob Milgrom.He noted that the Hebrew text uses the noun (5:12) ‫ַל‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫ְמָ‬ to describe the offence committed by a woman against her husband.This is the only case where this term refers to an offence against a husband and is used in reference to the "secular" sphere.Usually ‫ַל‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫ְמָ‬ denotes a transgression against YHWH (Lev 5:6; Josh 22:16, 22, 31; 1 Kgs 5:25; 9:1; the ritual described in Num 5:11-31 appears to be very cruel, the theological tradition that originated from it takes on a much milder dimension in the prophetic texts.Although, there is an unfaithful Israel who likes the adulterous woman, the final word of God is a word of forgiveness and a portent of the restoration of a relationship of love. 48 3. Reading Rev 8:11 in the light of Num 5:11-31 The results of the analyses carried out above make it possible to put forward a proposal for a fuller understanding of the final part of the verse Rev 8:11: καὶ πολλοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἀπέθανον ἐκ τῶν ὑδάτων ὁτι ἐπικράνθησαν.It is primarily about the interpretation of the verb ἐπικράνθησαν.The most popular translations assume that the verb refers to waters; 49 however, as Stephen S. Smalley notes, one can only infer this on the basis of context because, strictly speaking, the subject is implicit. 50Considering the text of Num 5:11-31, it is possible to propose a link between the verb ἐπικράνθησαν and the noun οἱ ἀνθρωποι which would be its subject, and the whole phrase would mean people who "filled themselves with bitterness." The verb πικραίνω in the passivum, in addition to the meaning of "becoming bitter, " often has also a metaphorical meaning: "become angry, become bitter, become resentful."This is most evident in the Book of Ruth (according to the LXX), where Noemi says that YHWH filled her with bitterness (1:13: ἐπικράνθη μοι; 1:20: ἐπικράνθη ἐν ἐμοὶ ὁ ἱκανὸς σφόδρα).In the Greek text of Ruth, the verb πικραίνω is the equivalent of the Hebrew root ‫ְמֹרֹר‬ in hiphil, and there are many forms derived from the same root in Num 5:11-31.One can see a similar meaning in Lam 1:4, where reference is made to Zion being filled with bitterness (TM: ‫ֹר‬ ‫;ְמ‬ LXX: πικραινομένη).Here, of course, the question can be raised whether or not it is possible for the spiritual effect of bitterness to produce such a physical effect as the death of the people mentioned in Rev 8:11.It is most certainly possible.Already in Num 5:11-31, there is a similar situation.The water is called "water of bitterness" not because of its taste but because of the effect it produces.However, ultimately the effect it has on the adulterous woman is physical in nature (5:21-22, 27). 51ccording to our proposal of reading Rev 8:10-11, the subject of the verb ἐπικράνθησαν is the noun οἱ ἀνθρωποι.This noun, which occurs frequently in the main part of the Apocalypse (Rev 4-22) does not denote mankind in general but means, first of all, the unrighteous people, labelled with sin. 52This is confirmed by the following texts : Rev 8:11; 9:4, 6;  9:10, 15, 18, 20; 13:13; 14:4; 16:2, 8, 9; 16:21, where either οἱ ἀνθρωποι are the object of plagues or the fact of the failure to repent is emphasised.
Thus, the category of οἱ ἀνθρωποι denotes those who do not repent but persist in a destructive relationship with the forces of evil.This relationship reveals itself in various ways.First of all, through idolatry, as indicated by Rev 9:20-21, this sin is often depicted metaphorically as a fornication.Such a way of reading Rev 8:11 is in accordance with the tradition, referring to Num 5:11-31, that the unfaithful people are considered harlots; treating the unfaithful people as a collective harlot.This theme is also present in Revelation, where the verb πορνεύω appears primarily in the context of idolatry.Moreover, the figure of the Great Harlot must be added, whose fundamental sin is the inciting to idolatry.The relationship of sinners (i.e. de facto οἱ ἀνθρωποι) and the Great Harlot is expressed in Rev 17:2, where the "inhabitants of the earth" (this category analogously to οἱ ἀνθρωποι means unfaithful idolaters) ἐμεθύσθησαν […] ἐκ τοῦ οἰνου τῆς πορνειάς αὐτῆς.Thus, in connection with Rev 8:10-11, one can see a kind of "ritual" revealing unfaithfulness.At that point, it is important to note a certain similarity between the two metaphors: that of sin and that of a ritual revealing sin.The sin in Rev 17:2 is described by the metaphor of drinking the wine of fornication, while the ritual revealing this sin consists of drinking water that brings bitterness.The connection between these metaphors is very likely since both refer to Jeremiah (8:14; 9: 14-15; 23:15). 53nother element that, in our view, confirms the existence of the above-mentioned connections is the interpretation of the motif of rivers and springs of waters in Rev 8:10.This is because it was the rivers and springs (one third) that were struck by the star called Wormwood.Since we are dealing with a metaphor here, it is necessary to refer to the metaphorical meaning of rivers and springs of waters. 54In the OT, springs of water were a metaphor for God as the source of life.Such is their meaning in several places, for example in Deut 10:11;13:14;14:27;Ps 36:10;87:7. 55 In this context, committing idolatry, the fundamental sin that destroys the relationship with YHWH means abandoning the spring of living water and turning it into a broken cistern (cf.Jer 2:13; 17:13).In Ezek 47, the river originating in the renewed temple signifies God's blessing.The symbolic significance of 52 The issue here is not so much all the texts in which the noun ἀνθρωπος appears in the Book of Revelation in various forms but the category designated as οἱ ἀνθρωποι.Such a theological category οἱ ἀνθρωποι has also another designation: οἱ κατοικοῦντες ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς (Rev 2:13; 3:10; 6:10; 8:13; 11:10; 13:8; 13:14; 17:2, 8).Cf.Blount, Revelation, 169: "Obviously, John is working symbolically here; it would be impossible for a single star literally to land simultaneously on one-third of all the rivers and all the springs on earth." the motif of the fountain of waters and rivers was also known to the author of the Apocalypse, as indicated by Rev 21:6 and 22:1, 17, except that there is no mention of punishment but of a reward described as an access to the fountain of the living waters. 56he motif of Wormwood is also linked by the OT to the sin of idolatry.The Greek term ὁ ἀψινθος is most likely the equivalent of the Hebrew ‫ָה‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫.ַל‬ 57 Since there is no star bearing such a name, it must be interpreted in terms of a metaphor.In Deut 29:17-18 wormwood appears in the context of idolatry.A person who has turned away from YHWH and serves the pagan gods is referred to as "a root yielding poison or wormwood" (Hebrew ‫ָה‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫;ַל‬ Greek πικριά). 58Jer 9:14-15 refers to the punishment that YHWH will send upon the people of Israel for the sin of idolatry.Wormwood and poisoned (bitter) water will be given to the people as food. 59In Jer 23:15, in a similar way to 9:14-15, the punishment for prophets who proclaim false prophecy is shown: YHWH is to give them wormwood (Masoretic Text: ‫ָה‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫;ַל‬ LXX -ὀδύνη) as food and poisoned water (Hebrew: ‫ֹאׁש‬ ‫י-ֹר‬ ‫;ְמֵ‬ LXX: ὑδωρ πικρόν) as a drink. 60Jer 9:12-13 specifies what the guilt of the People consisted of, namely: forsaking the Law, not listening to the voice of YHWH, acting not according to the voice of YHWH but according to a hardened heart, following the Baals.The guilt of the prophets shown in Jer 23:10-15 includes: fornication, the prophesying in the name of Baal, the deceiving of the people.In this context, the drinking of bitter water and the eating of ‫ָה‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫ַל‬ appear, as McKane notes, as actions designed to demonstrate the guilt of the people. 61s it was noted earlier, the use of motifs referring to Num 5:11-31 in the prophetic literature highlights the guilt of the people but also invokes the mercy of God.This includes the hope that the punishment sent by YHWH is not ultimate (this is particularly noticeable in Hosea).A similar idea is apparent in Revelation.The filling of bitterness does not become 56 Cf.J. Schreiner, ‫יִן"‬ ‫,ֲע‬ " TDOT XI, 45; H. Ringgren, ‫קֹוֹר"‬ ‫,ְמָ‬ " TDOT VIII, 546-547; W. Michaelis, "πηγή, " TDNT VI, 113-114.

57
Cf. McKane, "Poison, Trial by Ordeal and the Cup of Wrath, " 478-488.As McKane notes, the reference of the term ‫ָה‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫ַל‬ to "wormwood" is not at all certain.More than the specific plant (and the wormwood -Artemisia absinthium -is a plant sometimes used in medicine), the idea here is to emphasise the effect on humans, hence in the Septuagint ‫ָה‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫ַל‬ is translated not by ἀψινθος, but by other terms: πικριά (Deut 29:17: Lam 3:19; Amos 6:12) or πικρός (Jer 23:15), χολή (Prov 5:4; Jer 9:14; Lam 3:15).It may therefore be a matter of showing "wormwood" as a synonym for bitterness.And indeed, in Jeremiah, it is not so much about pointing to a particular plant but rather about emphasising that it is a metaphor for the tribulation and bitter experience that will come upon the unfaithful people and the false prophets.In the Masoretic text ‫ָה‬ ‫ֲָנ‬ ‫ֲע‬ ‫ַל‬ is used for "wormwood, " while the bitter water is translated as the phrase ‫ֹאׁש‬ ‫י-ֹר‬ ‫ְמֵ‬ and it is difficult to say which specific poison it is supposed to be.In the LXX, instead of wormwood, there is a reference made to suffering, affliction (ἀνάγκη).Poisoned water is expressed by the phrase ὑδωρ χολῆς.The Biblical Annals 14/1 (2024)  108   the experience of all sinners, as indicated by the expression πολλοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἀπέθανον.Although πολλοί denotes a large number, it does not mean "all."The analogy can be found in the prophetic literature, where the punishment has also a limited extent (the "rest" will be saved).It is, obviously, an open question whether the rest of οἱ ἀνθρωποι would repent.
At the end of our analyses, it is interesting to try to define our proposal using the terminology proposed by J. Paulien.In the Apocalypse, we are dealing primarily with allusions and echoes, not with quotations.Echoes do not depend on the conscious intention of the author but they are used as working in his cultural milieu. 62In our case, we are undoubtedly dealing with an allusion and not an echo, since the author had access to the Book of Numbers and one of the primary criteria for separating an allusion from an echo is exactly the possibility of contact with the source of the allusion.In the case of an echo, the author could take up ideas whose origin was unknown to him.The Book of Numbers, which is part of the Pentateuch, functioned in the environment of the author of Revelation.There is no doubt about this.This is not changed by the fact that John uses different terms from the relevant text of Numbers (according to the LXX).As Paulien notes, by their very nature, allusions do not have to repeat the exact wording of the original.It is sufficient that the allusions to the Old Testament are characterised by similarity of ideas, themes and contexts. 63This is, as Paulien argues, especially true when it comes to references to the Hebrew or Aramaic text of the OT.This is the case with Rev 8:11, since the idea of bitter water remains present in the Hebrew version of the Numbers, while it disappears from the LXX.In our opinion, in the case of Numbers 5:11-31, we are dealing with an allusion.It is a matter of debate whether it is a probable allusion or a possible one.One should rather tend towards the latter option.In this way, the text of Num 5:11-31 fits into a series of texts such as Jer 9:14, 15; 23:15, and these texts, as our analysis has shown, fit into the theological line (sin of idolatry) referring to Num 5:11-31.A similar theological context is evident in Rev 8:11.

Conclusion
The analyses carried out in this study allow us to make the following conclusions: 1) The analysis of the state of research has shown that the previous studies that have dealt with the issue of the OT being the background for Rev 8:11 have not considered the question of a possible link between the motif of drinking bitter water and Num 5:11-31.Instead, references have been made to other texts in the OT, which contain motifs related to the ritual described in Num 5:11-31.bitterness, " which is supported by recent research suggesting a return to the traditional translation.
3) The ritual described in Num 5:11-31 is not merely a legal regulation but a starting point for a theology, in accordance with the rule that legal texts in the Bible are always the basis for theological ideas.The aforementioned ritual is also commented on by the rabbis, although de facto its implementation was suspended in the first century after Christ.The fact that this "dead" legal provision was left in the midst of existing legislation can be justified only on the grounds that it was relevant to the exposition of theological ideas.4) Already in the OT literature, there was a theological tradition, based on the ritual described in Numbers 5, of portraying Israel/Judah as an unfaithful wife who was caught committing the sin of fornication (idolatry).The prophets (especially Jeremiah) portray YHWH's actions using motifs that refer to the ritual of bitter water.5) The conclusions made above entitle us to postulate that the act of drinking bitter water by οἱ ἀνθρωποι in Rev 8:11 can be better understood by referring it to the ritual described in Num 5:11-31.Here, we may be dealing with a specific ritual revealing the sin of these οἱ ἀνθρωποι, which is the fornication (idolatry).This is confirmed by references to other texts of Revelation, where many terms referring to the semantic field of fornication appear.6) Drinking bitter water in Rev 8:11 produces a fatal effect, which , however, does not affect all οἱ ἀνθρωποι.Therefore, it is possible to see a sign of God's mercy here, who still offers a chance for conversion.This idea is in line with the theological tradition of prophetic literature which refers to Num 5:11-31.7) The recognised link between Num 5:11-31 and Rev 8:11 does not, of course, exclude other connections already noticed by other scholars.The exceptional nature of the Book of Revelation consists also in the fact that its author refers to many texts in the OT at the same time, which makes the ideas it presents astonishing, considering the variety of meanings.

Bibliography
Allo

39M. Douglas ,
In the Wilderness.The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2001) 171.The Mishnah includes the enigmatic expression: "When adulterers became many, the ordeal of the bitter water was cancelled." For the possible reasons for the suspension of this ritual, see A. Destro, The Law of Jealousy.Anthropology of Sotah (BJS; Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press 2020) 2-24.It is very possible that this took place in the first century after Chr.Adriana Destro explains that the ritual was preserved in the Mishnah because of its symbolic value(ibidem, 12).40 Mary Douglas (In the Wilderness, 170) emphasises the necessity of referring to the structure of the Book of Numbers, which is not a collection of randomly arranged rules but a precise composition subordinated to theology.41 Cf.Knierim -Coats, Numbers, 83.Similarly: Douglas, In the Wilderness, 161.42 B.A. Levine, Numbers 1-20.A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 4a; New York et al.: Doubleday 1993) 207; D.T. Olson, Numbers (IBC; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox 1996) 39; D.R. Cole, Numbers (NAC 3b; Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman 2000) 113; Ashley, The Book of Numbers, 124.