Christian elites and Islam (VII-X century)
Teresa Wolińska
Uniwersytet Łódzki , PolandAbstract
It is difficult to find equally important event in history as the birth of Islam and Arab expansion, although their importance was not appreciated at first. Its appearance was a breakthrough in several dimensions: religious, political, economic, cultural and lingual. The article attempts to discuss the reaction of Christian elites to the new monotheist religion. Initially, Islam was not identified as a new, separate religion. It was believed that the invaders would be chased away soon. The invasion was perceived in the biblical context, as a punishment for sins and as a work of the devil. So thought Sophronios, Theodor, John of Nikiu. Other writers pointed out Jews and heretics as the cause of God’s anger (Maximus the Confessor), but also emperor Constans (Anastasius the Synaite, Sebeos, some anonymous authors). A debate between Christians and Muslims commenced when Muhammad was still alive and both parties knew virtually nothing of each other. With time, the knowledge about Islam increased, although it still depended on education, social status, place of residence and knowledge of Arabic. In the 8th century it became obvious that Muslim rule would continue which can be observed in the opinion expressed by such writers as Sebeos, Anastasios, Denys of Tell Mahré or Ghewond. The task of Christian elites then, was to survive in an alien, not in frequently hostile environment and to preserve Christian faith. It was even more important when, particularly under the Umayyad rule, the religious policy became worse for Christians, which resulted in numerous conversions to Islam. The church must have felt threatened, consequently new arguments in the disputes with Muslims were needed. A form of a dialogue or polemics between two adversaries appeared. This can be seen in the texts of Theodor Abu Qurra, John on Damascus, in the polemics between patriarch Timothy with caliph Mahdi (781), homilies of a Syriac bishop from Iraq Mar Aba II (641-751), a discourse between monk Bert Hale and a wealthy Muslim or the answer of emperor Leo III to caliph Umar II (719), to mention just a few. The Christians attacked primarily Muhammad himself. He was accused of being a heretic or fake prophet. His knowledge would come either from Jews or heretic Christians. His adversaries pointed out that he had not done miracles as Christ had. It was also said that his revelation had been nothing but his dream or a result of his illness (epilepsy), or even that he had been possessed by daemons. Another target of attacks was the Quran, which was presented as a falsified Scripture. According to Niketas, it was not created by God, but by a daemon, as a compilation of many, often contradicting texts. It was also criticized as being non-original. Islam, was also be spread with the sword rather than with the word.
Keywords:
Byzantium, Islam, anti-islamic polemics, Muhammad, QuranReferences
Andreas Salos, Apocalypsis, ed. and translated by L. Rydén: The Andreas Salos Apocalypse, DOP 28 (1974) 197-261. (Crossref)
Anastasius Sinaita, Sermo III, PG 89, 1152A–1180B.
Anonymus, Apologia Christianorum, ed. M. Dunlop Gibson, Studia Sinaitica VII, London 1889, 2-36 (przekład) i 74-107 (tekst arabski).
Arethas Caesariensis, Epistula ad ameram Damascenum, ed. L.G. Westerink: Arethae archiepiscopi Caesariensis scripta minora, vol. 1, Leipzig 1968, 233-245, lub ed. P. Karlyn-Hayter: Arethas’s Letter to the Emir at Damascus, „Byzantion” 29-30 (1959/1960) 293-302. Przekład francuski A. Abel: La lettre polémique d’Arethas à l’émir de Damas, „Byzantion” 24 (1954) 355-370.
Bartholomaeus Edessenus, Elenchus et confutatio Agareni, PG 104, 1384A-1448A.
Bartholomaeus Edessenus (?), Contra Muhammed, PG 104, 1448B-1457D.
Bukhari: Translation of Sahih Bukhari – Islamic-English Book, transl. by M. Muhsin Khan, vol. 1, Book 1: Revelation, nr 6, https://archive.org/details/TranslationOfSahihAlBukhari-IslamicEnglishBook.pdf_509.
Colloquium Joannis patriarchae cum amero Agarenorum, éd. par F. Nau: Un colloque du patriarche Jean avec l’émir des Agaréens et faits divers des annés 712 à 716, „Journal Asiatique” 11 (1915) nr 5, 268-271, przekład angielski: The Early Christian-Muslim Dialog. A Collection of Documents from the First Three Islamic Centuries (632- 900 A.D.), ed. N.A. Newman, Hatfield 1993, 24-28.
Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati, éd. et trad. par V. Deroche, commentaire par G. Dagron: L’Enseignement de Jacob, nouvellement baptisé, „Travaux et Mémoires” 11 (1991) 208-210.
Ephraem, Sermo de fine mundi, hrsg. und übersetzt von E. Beck: Des heiligen Ephraem des Syrers Sermones 3, CSCO 321, Scriptores Syri 139, Louvain 1972, 60-71 (tekst), 79-94 (przekład), lub hrsg. und mit Anmerkungen und Abhandlungen begleitet von C.P. Caspari: Briefe, Abhandlungen und Predigten aus den zwei letzten Jahrhunderten des kirchlichen Altertums und dem Anfang des Mittelaters, Christiania [Oslo] 1890, 208-220 (przekład łaciński).
Euthymius Zigabenus, Disputatio de fide cum philosopho saraceno in urbe Melitene, PG 131, 20C-40C.
Euthymius Zigabenus, Panoplia dogmatica ad Alexium Comnenum XXVIII: Adversus Saracenos, PG 130, 1332D-1360D.
Joannes Damascenus, De haeresibus, ed. R. le Coz : Jean Damascène, Écrits sur l’Islam, présentation, commentaire et traduction par R. Le Coz, SCh 383, Paris 1992, przekład polski A. Zhyrkova: Jan Damasceński, Dialektyka albo rozdziały filozoficzne. O herezjach, ŹMT 59, Kraków 2011.
Georgius Monachus, Chronicon, ed. C. de Boor, vol. 2, Lipsiae 1904 = PG 110, 41A-1285D.
Ghewond Vardapetus, Historia, transl. by R. Bedrosian, New Jersey 2006 = www.tertullian.org/fathers/ghewond_01_history.htm.
Historia Patriarcharum, ed. ed. B. Evetts: History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria, PO 1/4, Paris 1948.
Joannes Niciensis, Chronica, transl. from Zotenberg’s Ethiopic text by R.H. Charles: The Chronicle of John, bishop Nikiu, Text and Translation Society, London 1916
Al-Kindi, Risālat ‘Abdallāh ibn-Ismā‘īl al-Hāshimī ’ilā Abd al-Masīh ibn-Ishāq al-Kindī wa-risālat al-Kindī ’ilā al-Hāshimī, ed. tekstu arabskiego A. Tien, London 1880 (repr. 1885 i 1912), tekst wraz z przekładem hiszpańskim ed. F. González Muñoz: Exposición y refutación del Islam. La version Latina de las epistolas de al-Hāšimī y al-Kindī, Univ. da Coruña, Coruña 2005); przekłady – łaciński: Epistola Saraceni et Rescriptum Christiani, ed. J. Muñoz Sendino: Al-Kindi, Apologia del Cristianismo, „Miscellánea Comillas” 11-12 (1949) 375-460; włoski: Al-Kindi, Apologia del cristianesimo, traduzione dall’arabo, introduzione e cura di L. Bottini, Patrimonio di Cultura Arabo-Cristiana 4, Milano 1998; angielskie: W. Muir, The Apology of Al Kindy written at the Court of Al-Māmūn, New York 1887; The early Christian-Muslim dialogue. A collection of documents from the first three Islamic centuries (632–900 A.D.), trad. N.A. Newman, Hatfield (Pa.) 1993, 355-546 (tekst s. 381- 402 i 411-516); francuski: G. Pasteur Tartar, Dialogue islamo-chrétien sous le calife al-Mamun (813- 834). Les épitres d’al-Hashimi et d’al-Kindi, Paris 1985.
Al-Qur’ān, transl. A. Yusuf Ali: The Holy Qur’ān, Ware 2000, lub transl. A.Q. Qara’i: The Qur’ān with a Phrase-by-Phrase. English Translation, New York 2011, przekład polski z j. arabskiego J. Bielawski: Koran, Warszawa 1986.
Leo VI Imperator, Epistula ad Omarum Saracenorum regem, ed. J.-P. Migne, PG 107, 315A - 324B.
Maximus Confessor, Epistula 14, PG 91, 533B-344C.
Michael Syrus, Chronica XI 8, éd. et trad. J.-B. Chabot, t. 2, Paris 1901.
Ibn Al-Munağğim, Risāla fī nubuwwat Muhammad, éd. S.Kh. Samir – P. Nwyia: Une correspondance islamo-chrétienne entre Ibn al-Munaggim, Ḥunayn ibn Ishāq et Qustā ibn Lūqā, PO 40/4, Turnhout 1981, przekład polski J.A. Szymańczyk: Korespondencja między chrześcijaninem a muzułmaninem, tłum., ŹMT 36, Kraków 2005.
Nicetas Byzantinus, Confutatio dogmatum Mahomedis [vel] Confutatio falsi libri quem scripsit Mahomedes Arabs, PG 105, 669A-841C.
Nicetas Byzantinus, Refutatio epistulae regis Armeniae [vel] Confutatio et eversio epistulae ab Armeniae principe missae, PG 105, 588A-665C.
Nicetas Choniata, Thesaurus orthodoxae fidei XX 1-18, ed. J.-P. Migne, PG 140, 105A-121C.
Pseudo-Athanasius, Apocalypsis, éd. et transl. par F.J. Martínez: Apocalypse sahidique du Pseudo-Athanase, w: Eastern Christian Apocaliptic in the Early Muslim Period: Pseudo-Methodius and Pseudo-Athanasius, part 2, Washington 1985 [Ann Arbor University Microfilms], s. 285-411 (tekst koptyjski i arabski Apokalipsy), s. 462-555 (przekład).
Pseudo-Athanasius, Narrationes, éd. F. Nau: Le texte grec des récits du moine Anastase sur les saints Pères du Sinaï, OC 2:1902, 58-87; Le texte grec des récits utiles à l’âme d’Anastase (Sinaïte), OC 3:1903, 56-85; Le récits inédites du moine Anastase, „Revue de l’Institut Catholique de Paris” 1 (1902) 1-26; 2 (1902) 110-151.
Pseudo-Dionysius Telmahrensis, Chronica, publ. et trad. par J.-B. Chabot: Chronique de Denys de Tell-Mahré, 4e partie, Bibliothèque de l’École des Hautes Études. Sciences Historiques et Philologiques 112, Paris 1895, 1, lub ed. W. Witakowski: The Syriac Chronicle of Pseudo Dionisius of Tel Mahre, Studia Semitica Upsaliensia 9, Uppsala 1987.
Pseudo-Methodius, Apocalypsis (syriace), éd. et transl. par F.J. Martínez: Apocalypse syriaque du Pseudo-Méthode, w: Eastern Christian Apocaliptic in the Early Muslim Period: Pseudo- Methodius and Pseudo-Athanasius, (Phil. Diss.), part 1, Washington 1985, 58-92 (tekst) i 122-157 (przekład), lub ed. and transl. by B. Garstad: Apocalypse Pseudo-Methodius, Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library 14, Cambridge (Mass.) – London 2012, 2-71 (wersja grecka), 74-141 (wersja łacińska), przekład polski A. Tronina: Apokalipsa Pseudo-Metodego, w: Apokryfy syryjskie, red. M. Starowieyski, Pisma Apokryficzne 6, Kraków 2011, 212-238.
Abū Rā’itah, Risāla fī ithbāt dīn al-nasrāniyya wa-ithbāt al-thālūth al-muqaddas, ed. and transl. G. Graf, w: Die Schriften des Jacobiten Ḥabīb Ibn Hidma Abū Rā‘ita, Ḥabīb Ibn Khidma Abū Rā’ita, CSCO 130, 131-159 (tekst), CSCO 131, 159-194 (niemiecki przekład), Louvain 1951; lub ed. S.T. Keating: Defending the „People of the Truth” in the Early Islamic Period. The Christian Apologies of Abu Ra’itah, Leiden – Boston 2006.
Sebeos, Historia de Heraclio, traduite de l’arménien et annotée par F. Macler: Histoire d’Héraclius par l’évêque Sébeos, Paris 1904.
Sophronius Hierosolymitanus, Epistula synodica ad Sergium patriarcham Constantinopolitanum, PG 87/3, 3148A-3200C.
Sophronius Hierosolymitanus, Homilia in Christi natalitia, hrsg. von H. Usener: Weihnatchspredigt des Sophronius, „Rheinischen Museum” N.F. 41 (1886) 501-516.
Ali al-Tabari, Al-radd ‘ala al-Nasara, ed. I.-A. Khalifé – W. Kutsch: ‘Ar-Radd ‘alā-n- Nasārā de ‘Alī at-Ṭabarī’, “Mélanges de l’Université Saint Joseph” 36 (1959) 115- 148, przekład francuski J.-M. Gaudeul: Riposte aux chrétiens par Ali al-Tabari, Roma 1995, przekład angielski N.A. Newman: The Early Christian-Muslim Dialog. A Collection of Documents from the First Three Islamic Centuries (632-900 A.D.), ed. N.A. Newman, Hatfield 1993, 568-657.
Theodorus Abucara, Opuscula ascetica [vel] Contra haereticos, Iudaeos et Saracenos varia opuscula, ed. J.-P. Migne, PG 97, 1461A-1601C.
Theophanes Confessor, Chronographia, ed. C. de Boor, vol. 1, Lipsiae 1883 (= Theophanes, Chronographia, rec. I. Classenus, vol. 1, CSHB 32, Bonnae 1839).
Timotheus Nestorianus, Apologia Christianorum, ed. and transl. by A. Mingana: Timothy’s Apology for Christianity, w: Woodbrook Studies, vol. 2: Christian Documents in Syriac, Arabic, and Garshūni, Cambridge 1928, 1-162.
Visio Danielis (slavice), ed. by P.A. Lavrov: Apokrifičeskije teksty, Sbornik Otdeleniya russkogo yazyka i slovesnosti Imperatorskoi Akademii Nauk 67, Moskva 1899, tłum. angielskie P.J. Alexander: Vision of the Prophet Daniel on the Emperors and the Last Days and the End of the World, w: P. Alexander, The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition, Berkeley – Los Angeles 1985, 65-72.
Vita Theodori Edesseni, ed. B.Г. Васильевский: Житие и жизнь иже во святых отца нашего Феодора, архиепископа Едесского, „Православный Палестинскій Сборникъ” 4 (1886) nr 2, 264-265.
Abū ‘Īsā Al Warrāq, Al-Radd ‘alā l-thalāth firaq min al-Nasārā, ed. and transl. by D. Thomas: Anti-Christian Polemic in Early Islam, University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 45, Cambridge1992, 51-65 (Abū ‘Īsā al Warrāq’s „Against the Trinity”) lub w: Early Muslim polemic against Christianity, ed. and transl. by D. Thomas, University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 59, Cambridge 2002, 60-82 (Abū ‘Īsā al Warrāq’s „Against the Incarnation”).
Abel A., Le caractère sociologique du „culte” de Mahomet dans l’Islam tardif, w: Mélanges Georges Smets, Bruxelles 1952, 43-55.
Alexander P.J., The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition, Berkeley – Los Angeles 1985. (Crossref)
Argyriou A., Perception de l’Islam et traductions du Coran dans le monde byzantine grec, „Byzantion” 75 (2005) 25-69.
Bahkou A., The Christian Legend of Monk Bahīrā. The Syriac Manuscript of Mardin 259/2: Study and English Translation, http://www.baylorisr. org/wp-content/uploads/ bahkou_monk.pdf.
Bevan A., Mohammed’s Ascension to Heaven, w: Studien zur semitischen Philologie und Religionsgeschichte Julius Wellhausen zum siebzigsten Geburtstag am 17. Mai 1914 gewidmet von Frenden und Schülern, hrsg. K. Marti, Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschafte 27, Giessen 1914, 51-61. (Crossref)
Brock S., Syriac sources for seventh-century history, „Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies” 2 (1976) 17-36. (Crossref)
Brock S., Syriac Vievs of Emergent Islam, w: tenże, Syriac Perspectives on Late Antiquity, Collected Studies Series 199, London 1984, 9-21.
Brock S., Syriac Historical Writing: a Survey of the Main Sources, „Journal of the Iraqi Academy (Syriac Corporation)” 5 (1979/1980) 297-326 (= tenże, Studies in Syriac Christianity. History, Literature and Theology, Collected Studies Series 357, Aldershot 1992, 297-326.
Cameron A., The Literary Sources for Byzantium and Early Islam, w: La Syrie de Byzance à l’Islam: VIIe-VIIIe siècles. Actes du Colloque international (Lyon – Paris, 11-15 septembre 1990), publiés par P. Canivet – J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Publications de l’Institut Français de Damas 137, Damas 1992, 3-14.
Christides V., Once again the „Narrations” of Nilus Sinaiticus, „Byzantion” 43 (1973) 37-50.
Constantelos D. J., The Moslem Conquest of Near East as Reveated in Greek Sources of the VIIth and the VIIIth Century, „Byzantion” 42 (1972) 325-357.
Dick I., Un continuateur arabe de saint Jean Damascène, Théodore Abuqurra, évêque melchite de Harran. La personne et son milieu, cz. 1: Les études antérieures sur Abuqurra, POC 12 (1962) 209-223; cz. 2: Analyse des sources, POC 12 (1962) 319-332; cz. 3: Essai d’une esquisse historique, POC 13 (1963) 114-129.
Dick I., La discussion d’Abū Qurra avec les ulémas musulmans devant le calife al- Ma’mūn, ParOr 16 (1990-1991) 107-113.
Flori J., L’Islam et la fin des temps. L’interpretation prophetique des invasions musulmenes dans la chrétienté médiévale, Paris 2007.
Flussin B., Démons et Sarrasins. L’auteur et le propos des Diègémata stèriktika d’Anastase le Sinaïte, „Travaux et Mémoires” 11 (1991), s. 381-409
Gerö S., The Legend of the Monk Bahīrā, the Cult of the Cross and Iconoclasm, w: La Syrie de Byzance à l’Islam: VIIe-VIIIe siècles. Actes du Colloque international (Lyon – Paris, 11-15 septembre 1990), publiés par P. Canivet – J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Publications de l’Institut Français de Damas 137, Damas 1992, 47-58.
Gnilka J., Koran i chrześcijanie. Tajemnice początków, tłum. M. Waluś, Kielce 2010.
Grabar O., The Umayyad Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, „Ars Orientalis” 3 (1959) 33-62.
Griffith S.H., Disputes with Muslim in Syriac Christian Texts: From Patriarch John (d. 648) to Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286), w: Religionsgespräche im Mittelalter, hrsg. von B. Lewis – F. Niewoehner, Wolfenbütteler Mittelalter-Studien 4, Wiesbaden 1992, 251-273.
Griffith S.H., Disputing with Islam in Syriac: the Case of the Monk Bēt Hālê and a Muslim Emir, „Hugoye. Journal of Syriac Studies” 3 (2000) nr 1, 1-19. (Crossref)
Griffith S.H., Reflections on the Biography of Theodore Abu Qurrah, ParOr 18 (1993) 143-170.
Griffith S.H., The Qur’an in Arab Christian Texts: the Developpement of an Apologetical Argument: Abu Qurrah in the Maglis of al- Ma’mun, ParOr 24 (1999) 203-233.
Griffith S.H., Theodore Abu Qurrah. The Intelectual Profile of an Arab Christian Writer of the First Abbasid Century, Tel Aviv 1992.
Grodzki M., „Muslims” and „islam” in Middle Eastern Literature of the Seventh and Eight Century AD, „Studia Orientalia” 112 (2012) 1-16.
Horowitz J., Die Muhammeds Himmelfahrt, „Islam” 9 (1919) 159-183.
Hoyland R.G., Seeing Islam as Others saw it. A Surway and evaluatuin of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam, Princeton 1997.
Husseini S.L., Early Christian Explanations of the Trinity in Arabic in the Context of Muslim Theology, University of Birmingham Research Archive e-Theses Repository, Birmingham 2011, 77-141.
Jeffrey A., Gevond’s Text of the Correspondence between ‘Umar II and Leo III, HTR 37 (1944) 269-332. (Crossref)
Karczewski Ł., Dialog Teodora Abu Kurra ze światem islamu – zarys problematyki, „Seminare” 33 (2013) 277-292. (Crossref)
Kaegi W.E., Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest, w: The Expansion of the Early Islamic State, ed. F.M. Donner, The Formation of the Classical Islamic World 5, Aldershot 2008, 113-121 [pierwodruk: ChH 38 (1969) 139-149]. (Crossref)
Keating S.T., Defending the „People of the Truth” in the Early Islamic Period. The Christian Apologies of Abu Ra’itah, Leiden – Boston 2006. (Crossref)
Kennedy H., Wielkie arabskie podboje. Jak ekspansja islamu zmienia świat, tłum. M. Wilk, Warszawa 2011.
Khoury A.-Th., Polémique byzantine contre l’Islam (VIII-XIII s.), Leiden 1972.
Khoury A.-Th., Les théologiens byzantins et l’Islam, t. 1: Textes et auteurs (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle), Louvain – Paris 1969.
Kościelniak K., Dżihad. Święta wojna w islamie, Kraków 2006.
Kościelniak K., Grecy i Arabowie. Historia Kościoła melkickiego (katolickiego) na ziemiach zdobytych przez muzułmanów (634-1516), Kraków 2004.
Kościelniak K., Złe duchy w Biblii i Koranie, Kraków 1999.
Lammens H., Fatima et les filles de Mahomet, Rome 1912.
Lamoreaux J.C., Theodore Abu Qurrah and John the Deacon, GRBS 42 (2001) 361-386.
Lamoreaux J.C., The Biography of Theodore Abu Qurrah Revisited, DOP 56 (2002) 25-40. (Crossref)
Madeyska D., Historia świata arabskiego. Okres klasyczny od starożytności do roku 750, Warszawa 1999.
Meyendorff J., Byzantine Views of Islam, w: Arab-Byzantine Relations in Early Islamic Times, ed. M. Bonner, Ashgate 2004, 217-234 [pierwodruk: DOP 18 (1964) 113-132]. (Crossref)
Mikhail W.Y.F., ‘Ammār al-Basrī’s Kitāb al-Burhān: A Topical and Theological Analysis of Arabic Christian Theology in the Ninth Century, University of Birmingham Research Archive e-Theses Repository, Birmingham 2013.
Muslim Perceptions of Other Religions: A Historical Survey, ed. J. Waardenburg, Oxford 1999.
Nau F., Introduction, w: Un colloque du patriarche Jean avec l’émir des Agaréens et faits divers des annés 712 à 716, wyd. i tłum. M.F. Nau, „Journal Asiatique” 11.5 (1915) 230-232.
Nasry W., The Caliph and the Bishop. A 9th Century Muslim-Christian Debate: Al- Ma’mun and Abu Qurrah, Beyrouth 2008.
Nassif B.A., Religious Dialogue in the Eight Century, ParOr 30 (2005) 333-340.
Noth A., Problems of Differentiotion between Muslim and Non-Muslim: Re-reading the „Ordinances od Umar”, w: Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society, ed. R. Hoyland, Aldershot 2004, 103-124. (Crossref)
Pirenne H., Mahomet et Charlemagne, Paris 1937.
Platti E., La doctrine des chrétiens d’après Abū ‘Īsā al-Warrāq dans son traité sur la Trinité, „Mideo” 20 (1991) 7-30.
Pouzet L., Le hadith d’Héraclius: une caution byzantine à la prophétie deMuhammad, w: La Syrie de Byzance à l’Islam: VIIe-VIIIe siècles. Actes du Colloque international (Lyon – Paris, 11-15 septembre 1990), publiés par P. Canivet – J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Publications de l’Institut Français de Damas 137, Damas 1992, 59-65.
Reinink G., Pseudo-Methodius: A Concept of History in Response to the Rise of Islam, w: The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, Papers of the First Workshop on Late Antiquity and Early Islam, ed. A. Cameron – L.I. Conrad – G.R.D. Kind, Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 1, t. 1, Princeton 1992, 149-187.
Reinink G., Political Power and Right Religion in the East-Syrian Disputation between a monk of Bēt Ḥālē and an Arab notable, w: The Encounter of Eastern Christianity with Early Islam, ed. E. Grypeou – D.R. Thomas – M. Swanson, The History of Christian-Muslim Relations 5, Leiden 2006, 153-169. (Crossref)
Reinink G. J., Early Christian Reactions to the Building of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, w: tenże, Syriac Christianity under Late Sasanian and Early Islamic Rule, Collected Studies Series 831, Aldershot 2005, 227-241.
Roggema B., The Legend of Sergius Bahīrā. Eastern Christians Apologies and Apokalyptic in Responce to Islam, Leiden – Boston 2009. (Crossref)
Sadowski M., Chrześcijańska arabskojęzyczna literatura apologetyczna Bliskiego i Środkowego Wschodu w Okresie Abbasydów (750-1050), STHŚO 32 (2012) 87-106.
Sahas D.J., John of Damascus on Islam: the „Heresy of the Ishmailites”, Leiden 1972. (Crossref)
Samir K.S., Une apologie arabe du christianisme d’époque umayyade?, ParOr 16 (1990- 1991) 85-106.
Samir K.S., Prophet Muhammed seen through Arab Christian Eyes, w: Syrian Christians Under Islam: The First Thousand Years, ed. D.R. Thomas, Leiden 2001.
Savvides A.G.C., Some notes on the Term Agarenoī, Ismaelītai and Sarakenoī in Byzantine Sources, „Byzantion” 67 (1997) 89-96.
Schönborn C. von, Sophrone de Jérusalem, Vie monastique et confession dogmatique, Paris 1972. (Crossref)
Shahid I., Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, t. I, cz. 1: Political and Military History, Washington 1995; t. I, cz. 2: Ecclesiastical History, Washington 1995.
Shahid I., Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century, Washington 1989.
Swanson M.N., Beyond Prooftexting: Approaches to the Qur’an in Some Early Arabic Christian Apologies, „The Muslim World” 88 (1998) nr 3-4, 297-319. (Crossref)
Thomas D., Abū ‘Īsā al Warrāq and the History of Religion, „Journal of Semitic Studies” 41 (1996) nr 2, 275-290. (Crossref)
Tolan J., Réactions chrétiennes aux conquêtes musulmanes. Étude comparée des auteurs chrétiens de Syrie et Espagne, „Cahiers de Civilisation Médiévale” 44 (2001) 350-352. (Crossref)
Tritton A.S., Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects. A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar, Delhi 2008.
VasilievA.A., Byzance et les Arabes, t. 2: La dynastie macédonienne, cz. 2: Extraits des sources arabes, trad. par M. Canard, Corpus Bruxellense Historiae Byzantinae 2/2, Bruxelles 1930.
Zhyrkova A., Wstęp, w: Jan Damasceński, Dialektyka albo rozdziały filozoficzne. O herezjach, tłum. A. Zhyrkova, ŹMT 59, Kraków 2011, 3-12.
Zilio-Grandi I., La refutazione della profezia di Muhammad e del miracolo coranico di Qusta ib Luga, ParOr 22 (1997) 677-689.
Żelazny J.W., Patrystyczne świadectwa prób dialogu między chrześcijanami a islamem, w: Wczesne chrześcijaństwo a religie, red. I.S. Ledwoń – M. Szram, Lublin 2012, 303-315.
Uniwersytet Łódzki
License
Papers published in Vox Patrum are covered by the Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-ND 4.0) licence. Authors and users can use published works licensed under the CC-BY-ND since 2018. For earlier publications, copyrights are available under fair use rights in accordance with the Act of February 4, 1994 on copyrights and related rights.
