Wyzwania dla ochrony wolności religijnej. Rola rządu i normy społeczne
Julianna J. THOMSON
Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University, Van Metre Hall, 3351 Fairfax Drive, Arlington, Virginia 22201, USA , Stany Zjednoczonehttps://orcid.org/0009-0002-4290-7607
Mark J. ROZELL
Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University, Van Metre Hall, Room 514A, 3351 Fairfax Drive, MS 3B1, Arlington, Virginia 22201, USA , Stany ZjednoczoneAbstrakt
W epoce, którą definiują narastający nacjonalizm, autorytaryzm i religijny fundamentalizm, ochrona wolności religijnej stała się wyzwaniem na skalę światową. Podczas gdy prawo międzynarodowe i deklaracje ochrony praw człowieka od dawna pieczołowicie chronią zasadę wolności wyznania, dostrzec można poszerzającą się rozbieżność między zobowiązaniami globalnymi a praktyką poszczególnych krajów, co łączy się z faktem, że mniejszości religijne podlegają różnego rodzaju restrykcjom ze strony tak państwa, jak i społeczeństwa. Opierając się na analizie sytuacji w Nigerii, Egipcie, Rosji, Francji i Stanach Zjednoczonych, wykazujemy, że zarówno polityka prowadzona przez rządy poszczególnych krajów, jak i wrogość społeczna stanowią źródło restrykcji nakładanych na wolność religijną w różnych systemach politycznych i kontekstach kulturowych. Dokonawszy analizy porównawczej systemów prawnych, międzynarodowych raportów i udokumentowanych przypadków represji, wskazujemy na odmienne, aczkolwiek powiązane ze sobą praktyki, które sprawiają, że religia staje się obszarem sporu wokół tożsamości, nacjonalizmu i zakresu władzy państwowej. Wskazujemy, że restrykcje, bez względu na to, czy narzucone zostają przez rząd, czy ich źródłem pozostają naciski społeczne, podważają spójność społeczeństwa, pogłębiają podziały i stanowią zagrożenie dla rządów demokratycznych. We wnioskach podkreślamy, że nie istnieje obecnie żaden model instytucjonalny bezwyjątkowo gwarantujący wolność wyznania, nawet bowiem państwa narodowe, w których istnieje silne umocowanie wolności religijnej w prawie, zmagają się z głębokimi konfliktami wewnętrznymi dotyczącymi jej rozumienia i zakresu.
Tłumaczenie Dorota Chabrajska
Słowa kluczowe:
wolność wyznania, ograniczenia wobec wolności wyznania, nacjonalizm, sekularyzm, prawa człowieka, demokracja, polityka porównawcza, Nigeria, Egipt, Rosja, Francja, Stany ZjednoczoneBibliografia
BIBLIOGRAPHY / BIBLIOGRAFIA
ACN International. “Religious Freedom in the World Report 2023.” ACN International. https://acninternational.org/religiousfreedomreport/reports/global/2023.
Ahmad, Saad, and Lucy Ridout. “Criminalizing Blasphemy: Implications for Egypt’s Religious Minorities.” February 29, 2024. Minority Rights Group. https://minorityrights.org/criminalizing-blasphemy-implications-for-egypts-religious-minorities/.
Bandow, Doug. “Rising Restrictions on Religion Driven by Government Controls.” Cato Institute, June 13, 2024. https://www.cato.org/commentary/rising-restrictions-religion-driven-government-controls.
Bowen, John R. Why the French Don’t Like Headscarves: Islam, the State, and Public Space. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010.
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Nigeria National Human Rights Commission. https://nigeriarights.gov.ng/files/constitution.pdf.
The Covenant of the League of Nations. Yale Law School. Lilian Goldman Yale Library. The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22.
Chuah, Swee Hoon et al. “Religion, Discrimination and Trust across Three Cultures.” European Economic Review 90 (November 2016): 280–301.
Cline, Sara. “New Law Requires All Louisiana Public School Classrooms to Display the Ten Commandments.” AP News, June 20, 2024. AP News, https://apnews.com/article/louisiana-ten-commandments-displayed-classrooms-571a2447906f7bbd5a166d53db005a62.
Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the European Union. Religious Freedom: Pillar of the Human Rights Policy in the External Relations of the European Union. Brussels, Belgium, 2010. COMECE. https://www.comece.eu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2022/04/20100501-Pillar-of-the-Human-Rights-policy-in-the-external-relations-of-the-EU.pdf.
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. 1999. Nigeria National Human Rights Commission, https://nigeriarights.gov.ng/files/constitution.pdf.
Deibert, Nolen. “Protecting the Rights of Religious Minorities Is Crucial to Protecting Democracy Itself.” Freedom House, December 7, 2023. https://freedomhouse.org/article/protecting-rights-religious-minorities-crucial-protecting-democracy-itself.
Ferrara, Carol. “French Schools’ Ban on Abayas and Headscarves Is Supposedly about Secularism—but It Sends a Powerful Message about Who ‘Belongs’ in French Culture.” The Conversation, September 29, 2023. http://theconversation.com/french-schools-ban-on-abayas-and-headscarves-is-supposedly-about-secularism-but-it-sends-a-powerful-message-about-who-belongs-in-french-culture-213543.
Finke, Roger. “‘Presidential Address’ Origins and Consequences of Religious Freedoms: A Global Overview.” Sociology of Religion 74, no. 3 (2013): 297–313.
Fox, Jonathan. “Religious Regulation: The Regulation of All Religion in a Country.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion. Edited by Paul A. Djupe, Mark J. Rozell, and Ted G. Jelen. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2019.
Frank R. Wolf International Religious Freedom Act, Congress.Gov. https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/1150.
Gill, Anthony James. The Political Origins of Religious Liberty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Grim, Brian J., and Roger Finke. “International Religion Indexes: Government Regulation, Government Favoritism, and Social Regulation of Religion.” Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion 2 (2006): 1. https://www.religjournal.com/articles/article_view.php?id=13.
Juhasz, Aubri. “Judge Blocks Louisiana Law Requiring Display of Ten Commandments in Classrooms.” NPR Morning Edition, November 13, 2024. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2024/11/13/nx-s1-5188450/judge-blocks-louisiana-law-requiring-display-of-ten-commandments-in-classrooms#:~:text=Hourly%20News-,Judge%20blocks%20Louisiana%20law%20requiring%20display%20of%20Ten%20Commandments%20in,public%20school%20classrooms%20is%20unconstitutional.
Nigeria Inter-Religious Council. https://www.nirec.org.ng/.
OIDAC Europe. Intolerance and Discrimination Against Christians in Europe Report 2024. Observatory on Intolerance and Discrimination against Christians in Europe. https://www.intoleranceagainstchristians.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/files/OIDAC_Report_2024_-_Online_Version.pdf.
Observatory for Religious Freedom in Africa. https://orfa.africa/.
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe: Final Act. OSCE, https://www.osce.org/helsinki-final-act.
Pew Research Center. December 2024. Government Restrictions on Religion Stayed at Peak Levels Globally in 2022. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2024/12/PR_2024.12.18_restrictions-on-religion-2022_report.pdf.
Pew Research Center. “In 2018, Government Restrictions on Religion Reach Highest Level Globally in More Than a Decade.” Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2020/11/10/in-2018-government-restrictions-on-religion-reach-highest-level-globally-in-more-than-a-decade/?gad_campaignid=22378837192.
Reynolds v. United States, 98 U.S. 145 (U.S. Supreme Court 1979).
Robinson, Timothy, Louisa Brooke-Holland, and Philip Loft. Religious Minorities in Nigeria. Research Briefing DP-2023-0081. April 12, 2023. UK Parliament: House of Commons Library. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CDP-2023-0081/CDP-2023-0081.pdf.
Sarkissian, Ani. The Varieties of Religious Repression: Why Governments Restrict Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Shakman Hurd, Elizabeth. Beyond Religious Freedom: The New Global Politics of Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017.
Shudde, Megan. “Megan Shudde on Degrees of Religious Tolerance in Egypt.” Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs: JYAN Blog. 2008. https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/posts/megan-shudde-on-degrees-of-religious-tolerance-in-egypt.
Sisk, Timothy D., ed. Between Terror and Tolerance: Religious Leaders, Conflict, and Peacemaking. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2011.
Su, Anna. Exporting Freedom: Religious Liberty and American Power. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2016.
United Nations. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights.
United Nations General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948). United Nations, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights.
U.S. Department of State. “2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Egypt.” 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom. https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/egypt/#.
U.S. Department of State. “2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: France.” 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom. https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/france/.
U.S. Department of State. “2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Nigeria.” 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom. https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/nigeria/.
U.S. Department of State. “2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Russia.” 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom. https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/.
Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University, Van Metre Hall, 3351 Fairfax Drive, Arlington, Virginia 22201, USA https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4290-7607
Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University, Van Metre Hall, Room 514A, 3351 Fairfax Drive, MS 3B1, Arlington, Virginia 22201, USA
