UPOLITYCZNIENIE SPORTU W XXI WIEKU NA PRZYKŁADZIE LETNICH IGRZYSK OLIMPIJSKICH
Michał Marcin Kobierecki
Abstrakt
Artykuł ma na celu przegląd odbywających się w XXI wieku letnich igrzysk olimpijskich z perspektywy ich upolitycznienia. W badaniu uwzględniono igrzyska olimpijskie w Atenach w 2004 roku, w Pekinie w 2008 roku, w Londynie w 2012 roku oraz w Rio de Janeiro w 2016 roku. Za najbardziej upolitycznione uznano igrzyska w Pekinie, aczkolwiek w trakcie każdej z tych imprez sportowych można było dostrzec polityczne elementy. W artykule podjęto próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie badawcze dotyczące tego, czy po zakończeniu zimnej wojny w dalszym ciągu sport w dalszym ciągu odgrywa istotną rolę polityczną.
Słowa kluczowe:
Igrzyska Olimpijskie, sport, polityka, upolitycznienie sportuBibliografia
BIBLIOGRAFIA
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Bairner A., Molnar G., The politics of the Olympics: An Introduction w: The Politics of the Olympics. A Survey, red. A. Bairner, G. Molnar, London 2010, s. 3-14.
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Cha V. D., Beyond the Final Score. The Politics of Sport in Asia, New York 2009.
Cha V. D., Politics and the Olympic Transaction: Measuring China’s Accomplishments, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2001, vol. 27, nr 14–15, s. 2359-2379.
Choi C. R., Heo C. M., Economic Changes Resulting from Seoul 1988: Implications for London 2012 and Future Games, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2013, vol. 30, nr 15, s. 1854-1866.
Cooper A. F., The Changing Nature of Diplomacy, w: The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy, red. A. F. Cooper, J. Heine i R. Thakur, Oxford 2013, s. 35-53.
d’Hooghe I., The Limits of China’s Soft Power in Europe. Beijing’s Public Diplomacy Puzzle, The Hague 2010.
deLisle J., “One World, Different Dreams”: The Context to Define the Beijing Olympics, w: Owing the Olympics. Narratives of the New China, red. M. E. Price, D. Dayan, Ann Arbor 2008, s. 17-66.
Galily Y., Tamir I., Levy M., The games must go on? The influence of terror attacks on hosting sporting events in Israel, „Israel Affairs” 2012, Vol. 18, No. 4, s. 629-644.
Gries P. H., Crowson H. M., Sandel T., The Olympic Effect on American Attitudes towards China: beyond personality, ideology, and media exposure, „Journal of Contemporary China” 2010, nr 19 (64), s. 2130-231.
Grix J., Brannagan P. M., Houlihan B., Interrogating States’ Soft Power Strategies: A Case Study of Sports Mega-Events in Brazil and the UK, „Global Society” 2015, vol. 29, nr 3, s. 463-479.
Grix J., Houlihan B., Sports Mega-Events as Part of a Nation’s Soft Power Strategy: The Cases of Germany (2006) and the UK (2012), „The British Journal of Politics and International Relations” 2014, vol. 16, s. 572–596.
Hong F., Zhouxiang L., The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China. Communists and Champions, London 2013.
Horne J., Houlihan B., London 2012, w: Leveraging Legacies from Sports Mega-Events. Concepts and Cases, red. J. Grix, London 2014, s. 107-117.
Horne J., Whannel G., Understanding the Olympics, London 2012.
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Lai Lee A., Did the Olympics help the nation branding of China? Comparing public perception of China with the Olympics before and after the 2008 Beijing Olympics in Hong Kong, „Place Branding and Public Diplomacy” 2010, vol. 6, nr 3, s. 207-221.
Latham K., Unimagined China: Media, Technologies and the Fragmentation of National Olympic Audiences, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2012, vol. 29, nr 16, s. 2311-2325.
Londres 2012. Rapport officiel des Jeux Olympiques, vol 1, London 2012.
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MacRury I., Poynter G., ‘Team GB’ and London 2012: The Paradox of National and Global Identities, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2010, vol. 27, nr 16–18, s. 2958-2975.
Mangan J. A., Kim H.-D., Cruz A., Kang G.-H., Rivalries: China, Japan and South Korea – Memory, Modernity, Politics, Geopolitics – and Sport, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2013, vol. 30, nr 10, s. 1130-1152.
Mangan J. A., Ok G., Beijing 2008: Symbolic Hegemonic Assertion? South Korean Media Reactions and Responses to the Chinese Olympics, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2010, vol. 27, nr 14–15, s. 2440–2466.
Mangan J. A., Ok G., Kwak Y. M., East Reflects on West, East Meets West!: South Korean Media Responses to London 2012, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2013, vol. 30, nr 15, s. 1834‐1853.
Mateša Z., Wydarzenia sportowe jako kluczowy element przełamywania barier, [w:] Sport i Dyplomacja, Polski Komitet Olimpijski, Warszawa 2015.
Pan C., Problematizing “Constructive Engagement” in EU-China Policy, w: Europe and China: Strategic Partners or Rivals?, red. R. Vogt, Hong Kong 2012, s. 37-57.
Pigman G. A., International Sport and Diplomacy’s Public Dimension: Governments, Sporting Federations and the Global Audience, „Diplomacy & Statecraft” 2014, nr 25, s. 94-114.
Pope M. R. G., Public diplomacy, international news media and London 2012: cosmopolitanismTM, „Sport in Society”, 2014, vol. 17, nr 9.
Qing L., Encoding the Olympics – Visual Hegemony? Discussion and Interpretation on Intercultural Communication in the Beijing Olympic Games, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2010, vol. 27, nr 9-10, s. 1824-1872.
Radford P., Grudgings S., Rio wins 2016 Games as IOC rebuffs Obama, Reuters, 02.10.2009, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-idUSTRE58S1H820091002.
REFUGEE OLYMPIC TEAM TO SHINE SPOTLIGHT ON WORLDWIDE REFUGEE CRISIS, MKOl, 03.06.2016, https://www.olympic.org/news/refugee-olympic-team-to-shine-spotlight-on-worldwide-refugee-crisis.
Rofe J. S., It is a squad game: Manchester United as a diplomatic non-state actor in international affairs, „Sport in Society” 2014, s. 1-19.
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII Olympiad. Preparing of the Games, vol. I, Sydney 2001.
Taylor T., Toohey K., Perceptions of Terrorism Threats at the 2004 Olympic Games: Implications for Sport Events, „Journal of Sport & Tourism” 2007, nr 2(12), s. 55-114.
Thompson D., Beijing Olympics: More at Stake than Gold Medals, „chinabusinessreview.com”, January–February 2008.
Tomlinson A., Lording It. London and the getting of the Games w: Watching the Olympics. Politics, power and representation, red. J. Sugden, A. Tomlinson, London 2012, s. 1-17.
Tomlinson R., Bass O., Bassett T., Before and after the vuvuzela: identity, image and mega-events in South Africa, China and Brazil, „South African Geographical Journal” 2011, vol. 93, nr 1, s. 33-48.
Toohey K., Taylor T., Mega Events, Fear, and Risk: Terrorism at the Olympic Games, „Journal of Sport Management” 2008, nr 22, s. 451-469.
UN SECRETARY-GENERAL PRAISES INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEE FOR REFUGEE OLYMPIC TEAM, MKOl, 20.09.2016, https://www.olympic.org/news/un-secretary-general-praises-international-olympic-committee-for-refugee-olympic-team.
Zeng G., Go F., Kolmer C., The impact of the 2008 Summer Olympic Games on Beijing’s and Chinas’s image, w: Global Sport Marketing. Contemporary issues and practice, red. M. Desbordes, A. Richelieu, London 2012, s. 56-80.
Zhang Q., Sports Diplomacy: The Chinese Experience and Perspective, „The Hague Journal of Diplomacy” 2013, nr 8, s. 211-233.
Zhou S., Shen B., Zhang C., Zhong X., Creating a Competitive Identity: Public Diplomacy in the London Olympics and Media Portrayal, w: The Global Impact of Olympic Media at London 2012, red. A. C. Billings, A. M. Hardin, Abingdon 2015, 23-41.
Ateny 2004, PKOl, http://www.olimpijski.pl/pl/251,ateny-2004.html.
Bairner A., Molnar G., The politics of the Olympics: An Introduction w: The Politics of the Olympics. A Survey, red. A. Bairner, G. Molnar, London 2010, s. 3-14.
BOCOG, Preparation for the Games: New Beijing Great Olympics. Official Report of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, vol. III.
Bonde H., Sport, the Olympics and Politics: European Responses to Beijing 2008, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2009, vol. 26, nr 10, s. 1555-1570.
Boykoff J., Power Games. A Political History of the Olympics, London 2016.
Brady A-M., The Beijing Olympics as a campaign of mass distraction, w: China’s Thought Management, red. A-M. Brady, Abingdon 2012, s. 1-24.
Brownell S., The Beijing Olympics as a Turning Point? China’s First Olympics in East Asian Perspective, „The Asia-Pacific Journal. Japan Focus” 2009, vol. 7, zeszyt 23, nr 4, s. 185-204.
Cha V. D., Beyond the Final Score. The Politics of Sport in Asia, New York 2009.
Cha V. D., Politics and the Olympic Transaction: Measuring China’s Accomplishments, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2001, vol. 27, nr 14–15, s. 2359-2379.
Choi C. R., Heo C. M., Economic Changes Resulting from Seoul 1988: Implications for London 2012 and Future Games, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2013, vol. 30, nr 15, s. 1854-1866.
Cooper A. F., The Changing Nature of Diplomacy, w: The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy, red. A. F. Cooper, J. Heine i R. Thakur, Oxford 2013, s. 35-53.
d’Hooghe I., The Limits of China’s Soft Power in Europe. Beijing’s Public Diplomacy Puzzle, The Hague 2010.
deLisle J., “One World, Different Dreams”: The Context to Define the Beijing Olympics, w: Owing the Olympics. Narratives of the New China, red. M. E. Price, D. Dayan, Ann Arbor 2008, s. 17-66.
Galily Y., Tamir I., Levy M., The games must go on? The influence of terror attacks on hosting sporting events in Israel, „Israel Affairs” 2012, Vol. 18, No. 4, s. 629-644.
Gries P. H., Crowson H. M., Sandel T., The Olympic Effect on American Attitudes towards China: beyond personality, ideology, and media exposure, „Journal of Contemporary China” 2010, nr 19 (64), s. 2130-231.
Grix J., Brannagan P. M., Houlihan B., Interrogating States’ Soft Power Strategies: A Case Study of Sports Mega-Events in Brazil and the UK, „Global Society” 2015, vol. 29, nr 3, s. 463-479.
Grix J., Houlihan B., Sports Mega-Events as Part of a Nation’s Soft Power Strategy: The Cases of Germany (2006) and the UK (2012), „The British Journal of Politics and International Relations” 2014, vol. 16, s. 572–596.
Hong F., Zhouxiang L., The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China. Communists and Champions, London 2013.
Horne J., Houlihan B., London 2012, w: Leveraging Legacies from Sports Mega-Events. Concepts and Cases, red. J. Grix, London 2014, s. 107-117.
Horne J., Whannel G., Understanding the Olympics, London 2012.
Houlihan B., Tan T-C., Park J., The national government perspective, w: Routledge Handbook of Sports Event Management, red. M. M. Parent, J-L. Chappelet, London 2015, s. 289-305.
House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee, FCO Public Diplomacy: The Olympic and Paralympic Games 2012, Second Report of Session 2010-11, London 2011.
International Olympic Committee, Factsheet. Beijing Facts and Figures, August 2009, https://www.olympic.org/olympic-legacy/~/media/A8264DD681D34B459B026CBD6FFD4D78.ashx.
Krawczyk Z., Sport in changing Europe, w: Sports Involvement in Changing Europe, red. J. Kosiewicz, K. Obodyński, Rzeszów 2004.
Lai Lee A., Did the Olympics help the nation branding of China? Comparing public perception of China with the Olympics before and after the 2008 Beijing Olympics in Hong Kong, „Place Branding and Public Diplomacy” 2010, vol. 6, nr 3, s. 207-221.
Latham K., Unimagined China: Media, Technologies and the Fragmentation of National Olympic Audiences, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2012, vol. 29, nr 16, s. 2311-2325.
Londres 2012. Rapport officiel des Jeux Olympiques, vol 1, London 2012.
Lu Y-N., The Representation of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games: The Rise of China’s Soft Power, w: China’s Quiet Rise. Peace Through Integration, red. B. Guo, C-C. Teng, Lanham 2011 s. 29-40.
MacRury I., Poynter G., ‘Team GB’ and London 2012: The Paradox of National and Global Identities, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2010, vol. 27, nr 16–18, s. 2958-2975.
Mangan J. A., Kim H.-D., Cruz A., Kang G.-H., Rivalries: China, Japan and South Korea – Memory, Modernity, Politics, Geopolitics – and Sport, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2013, vol. 30, nr 10, s. 1130-1152.
Mangan J. A., Ok G., Beijing 2008: Symbolic Hegemonic Assertion? South Korean Media Reactions and Responses to the Chinese Olympics, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2010, vol. 27, nr 14–15, s. 2440–2466.
Mangan J. A., Ok G., Kwak Y. M., East Reflects on West, East Meets West!: South Korean Media Responses to London 2012, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2013, vol. 30, nr 15, s. 1834‐1853.
Mateša Z., Wydarzenia sportowe jako kluczowy element przełamywania barier, [w:] Sport i Dyplomacja, Polski Komitet Olimpijski, Warszawa 2015.
Pan C., Problematizing “Constructive Engagement” in EU-China Policy, w: Europe and China: Strategic Partners or Rivals?, red. R. Vogt, Hong Kong 2012, s. 37-57.
Pigman G. A., International Sport and Diplomacy’s Public Dimension: Governments, Sporting Federations and the Global Audience, „Diplomacy & Statecraft” 2014, nr 25, s. 94-114.
Pope M. R. G., Public diplomacy, international news media and London 2012: cosmopolitanismTM, „Sport in Society”, 2014, vol. 17, nr 9.
Qing L., Encoding the Olympics – Visual Hegemony? Discussion and Interpretation on Intercultural Communication in the Beijing Olympic Games, „The International Journal of the History of Sport” 2010, vol. 27, nr 9-10, s. 1824-1872.
Radford P., Grudgings S., Rio wins 2016 Games as IOC rebuffs Obama, Reuters, 02.10.2009, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-idUSTRE58S1H820091002.
REFUGEE OLYMPIC TEAM TO SHINE SPOTLIGHT ON WORLDWIDE REFUGEE CRISIS, MKOl, 03.06.2016, https://www.olympic.org/news/refugee-olympic-team-to-shine-spotlight-on-worldwide-refugee-crisis.
Rofe J. S., It is a squad game: Manchester United as a diplomatic non-state actor in international affairs, „Sport in Society” 2014, s. 1-19.
Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report of the XXVII Olympiad. Preparing of the Games, vol. I, Sydney 2001.
Taylor T., Toohey K., Perceptions of Terrorism Threats at the 2004 Olympic Games: Implications for Sport Events, „Journal of Sport & Tourism” 2007, nr 2(12), s. 55-114.
Thompson D., Beijing Olympics: More at Stake than Gold Medals, „chinabusinessreview.com”, January–February 2008.
Tomlinson A., Lording It. London and the getting of the Games w: Watching the Olympics. Politics, power and representation, red. J. Sugden, A. Tomlinson, London 2012, s. 1-17.
Tomlinson R., Bass O., Bassett T., Before and after the vuvuzela: identity, image and mega-events in South Africa, China and Brazil, „South African Geographical Journal” 2011, vol. 93, nr 1, s. 33-48.
Toohey K., Taylor T., Mega Events, Fear, and Risk: Terrorism at the Olympic Games, „Journal of Sport Management” 2008, nr 22, s. 451-469.
UN SECRETARY-GENERAL PRAISES INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEE FOR REFUGEE OLYMPIC TEAM, MKOl, 20.09.2016, https://www.olympic.org/news/un-secretary-general-praises-international-olympic-committee-for-refugee-olympic-team.
Zeng G., Go F., Kolmer C., The impact of the 2008 Summer Olympic Games on Beijing’s and Chinas’s image, w: Global Sport Marketing. Contemporary issues and practice, red. M. Desbordes, A. Richelieu, London 2012, s. 56-80.
Zhang Q., Sports Diplomacy: The Chinese Experience and Perspective, „The Hague Journal of Diplomacy” 2013, nr 8, s. 211-233.
Zhou S., Shen B., Zhang C., Zhong X., Creating a Competitive Identity: Public Diplomacy in the London Olympics and Media Portrayal, w: The Global Impact of Olympic Media at London 2012, red. A. C. Billings, A. M. Hardin, Abingdon 2015, 23-41.
Kobierecki, M. M. (2020). UPOLITYCZNIENIE SPORTU W XXI WIEKU NA PRZYKŁADZIE LETNICH IGRZYSK OLIMPIJSKICH. Zeszyty Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego Jana Pawła II, 60(2), 123–139. https://doi.org/10.31743/zn.2017.60.2.123-139
Michał Marcin Kobierecki
mkobierecki@uni.lodz.pl
Licencja
Czasopismo zapewnia bezpłatny i otwarty dostęp (ang. open access) do całej zawartości.
Od numeru 1/2024 teksty udostępniane są na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa CC BY 4.0.
Teksty opublikowane w numerach od 3/2018 do 4/2023 udostępnione są na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa - Użycie niekomercyjne - Bez utworów zależnych CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
Z utworów opublikowanych w niniejszym czasopiśmie przed nr 3/2018 można korzystać w ramach dozwolonego użytku zgodnie z art. 23-35 ustawy z dnia 4 lutego 1994 r. o prawie autorskim i prawach pokrewnych.
