The racist component of Islamophobic crimes: An examination of the revised General Policy Recommendation No. 5 of the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance
Filip Ciepły
John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin , Polandhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-1124-7389
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to draw attention to the tendency of European institutions to shift the category of Islamophobic crimes from the normative context of the protection of religious freedom, which is vested in all religions, to the area of preventing and combating racism, which is dominated by the idea of the protection of minorities. The revised General Policy Recommendation No. 5 of the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) represents an important starting point in assessing the change in the model of criminalization of Islamophobic behaviour. The article analyses the concept of Islamophobia, axiological and political assumptions of Recommendation No. 5 and the types of behaviour classified by the ECRI as acts of hatred constituting manifestations of anti-Muslim racism, which should be penalized. The paper also delves into the potential systemic effects of implementing these recommendations, pointing out that an overemphasis on anti-racist policy versus the need for universal protection of religious freedom may violate the principle of equality before the law with regard to other religions, especially Christianity, and even religious freedom itself.
Keywords:
Islamophobia, criminal law, religious freedom, racism, hate crimes, hate speechReferences
Asad, Talal. 2017. „Terroryzm”. Praktyka Teoretyczna 26(4): 118–151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/prt.2017.4.5. (Crossref)
Bayrakli, Enes, Farid Hafez (red.). 2020. European Islamophobia Report 2019. Istanbul: SETA. Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research, https://www.oic-oci.org/upload/islamophobia/2019/SETA_European_Islamophobia_Report_2019.pdf [dostęp: 7.08.2023].
Beydoun, Khaled A. 2018. „Islamophobia: Toward a legal definition and framework”. W: Countering the Islamophobia industry: Toward more effective strategies, 28–39. Atlanta, GA: The Carter Center, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/countering-isis/cr-countering-the-islamophobia-industry.pdf [dostęp: 19.03.2024],
Bhatti, Tabetha. 2021. Defining Islamophobia: A contemporary understanding of how expressions of Muslimness are targeted. London: Muslim Council of Britain, https://mcb.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/FULL-SPREAD-IslamophobiaReport_020321_compressed.pdf [dostęp: 10.08.2023].
Bishop, Tyler i in. 2021. Exploring alternative approaches to hate crimes. [Stanford–New York]: Stanford Law School Law and Policy Lab, Brennan Center for Justice New York University School of Law, https://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Alternative-to-Hate-Crimes-Report_v09-final.pdf [dostęp: 5.08.2023].
Burgoński, Piotr. 2021. „Zmiany w polityce antyrasistowskiej Unii Europejskiej w latach 2000–2020”. Rocznik Integracji Europejskiej 15: 135–153. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/rie.2021.15.9. (Crossref)
Ciepły, Filip. 2019. „Penalizacja mowy nienawiści – kontekst polityczny i normatywny”. W: Wolność słowa. Współczesne wyzwania w perspektywie prawnoporównawczej, red. Grzegorz Blicharz, Maciej Delijewski, 391–445. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Wymiaru Sprawiedliwości.
Copsey, Nigel, Janet Dack, Mark Littler, Matthew Feldman. 2013. Anti-Muslim hate crime and the far right. [Middlesbrough]: The Centre for Fascist, Anti-Fascist and Post-Fascist Studies at Teesside University, https://tellmamauk.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/antimuslim2.pdf [dostęp: 7.08.2023]. (Crossref)
Elsheikh, Elsadig, Basima Sisemore, Natalia Ramirez Lee. 2017. Legalizing Othering: The United States of Islamophobia. Research Report. [Berkeley]: Haas Institute UC Berkeley, https://belonging.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/haas_institute_legalizing_othering_the_united_states_of_islamophobia.pdf [dostęp: 7.08.2023].
Frańczuk, Magdalena. 2014. „Koncepcja regulacji sharia zones w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej”. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Krakowie 7(931): 111–124. (Crossref)
Jones, Stephen H., Amy Unsworth. [b.d.]. The dinner table prejudice: Islamophobia in contemporary Britain. [Birmingham]: University of Birmingham, https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/documents/college-artslaw/ptr/90172-univ73-islamophobia-in-the-uk-report-final.pdf [dostęp: 7.08.2023].
Kettani, Houssain. 2010. „Muslim population in Europe: 1950 – 2020”. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development 1(2): 154–164. (Crossref)
Mahmood, Azka. 2021. Countering and dismantling Islamophobia: A comprehensive guide for individuals and organizations. [Washington, D.C.–Dearborn, MI]: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, https://www.ispu.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/ISPU_RapidResponse-Report-5.pdf?x46312 [dostęp: 7.08.2023].
Ministère de la Justice. [2023]. Preventing Racism and Intolerance. Handbook of Practices to Better Fight Against Racism and Intolerance, https://www.gouvernement.fr/sites/default/files/contenu/piece-jointe/2019/03/handbook_of_practices_print_appendix-compressed.pdf [dostęp: 7.08.2023].
Phillips, Trevor, John Jenkins, Martyn Frampton. 2019. On Islamophobia: The problem of definition. London: Policy Exchange, https://policyexchange.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/On-Islamophobia.pdf [dostęp: 8.08.2023].
Rabiej, Stanisław Jan. 2020. „Islam w Europie – między zagrożeniem a integracją”. Studia Nauk Teologicznych PAN 15: 159–177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31743/snt.8836. (Crossref)
Starnawski, Marcin. 2017. „Populizm antyislamski a socjalizacja polityczna w kontekście polskim”. Praktyka Teoretyczna 26(4): 62–92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/prt.2017.4.3. (Crossref)
Tazamal, Mobashra, John L. Esposito. 2021. „The Islamophobia industry: How the post-9/11 environment cultivated a network of forces that feed, sustain, and capitalize off anti-Muslim bigotry”. W: The terror trap: The impact of the war on terror on Muslim communities since 9/11, 37–48. The Coalition for Civil Freedoms, The Bridge Initiative, CAGE, the Center for Islam and Global Affairs, the Muslim Justice League, ICNA Council for Social Justice, and United Voices for America, https://bridge.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/THE-TERROR-TRAP-FINAL.pdf [dostęp: 9.08.2023].
Werbner, Pnina. 2005. „Islamophobia: Incitement to religious hatred – legislating for a new fear?”. Anthropology Today 21(1): 5–9. (Crossref)
Wolfreys, Jim. 2018. Republic of Islamophobia: The rise of respectable racism in France. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zempi, Irene, Neil Chakraborti. 2014. Islamophobia, victimisation and the veil. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. (Crossref)
John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin
Dr hab. prof. KUL, Katedra Prawa Karnego, Wydział Prawa, Prawa Kanonicznego i Administracji, Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II, Al. Racławickie 14, 20-950 Lublin
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1124-7389License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- According to the Act of 4 February 1994 on copyright and related rights, the author of a publication transfers to the publisher the proprietary copyright of his or her work in all fields of exploitation known on the date of concluding an agreement with the publisher.
- Texts submitted for publication in Studia z Prawa Wyznaniowegocannot infringe the copyright of third parties. The author declares the originality of his or her publication when completing a declaration and signing a publishing agreement.
- Authors are permitted to post the publisher's version of their work online (e.g. in institutional repositories, academia.edu, researchgate.net or on their website) after its initial publication in this journal.
- With the consent of the editors, texts published in Studia z Prawa Wyznaniowego can be republished in other publications (provided that their original place of publication is acknowledged).
- This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author.
